Pyramids within the Roman Realms (East / West)

"Ancient Rome" before the year 1000 CE (1000 years BM)

* Pyramids of Argolis within the modern-day jurisdiction of the Republic of Greece, near Constantinople. More information -
- (wikipedia.org) [archive.is/3AdF4]
- (crystalinks.com/) [archive.is/QLyto]

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* Appian Way (Appia Antica) Pyramid [archive.is/u1Vbx]

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* "Amheida, on the western edge of Dakhla Oasis" (egyptsites.wordpress.com) [archive.is/MDPVc], photo caption: Reconstructed Roman period pyramid.


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"Medieval Rome" after the year 1000 CE


* "What is a Pyramid doing in the Heart of Rome?" (2015-05-10, ancient-origins.net) [archive.is/hRVyR] [begin excerpt]: It should first be pointed out that the Pyramid of Cestius was not the only Egyptian-style pyramid in Rome. There was also another pyramid, known as the ‘Pyramid of Romulus’. Incidentally, during the Middle Ages, the Pyramid of Cestius was known as the ‘Pyramid of Remus’, and it was believed that these two pyramids were the tombs of the legendary founders of Rome. The larger ‘Pyramid of Romulus’, located between the Vatican and Hadrian’s Mausoleum (known also as the Castel Sant’Angelo), was dismantled sometime during the 16th century so that its marble could be used in the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica.
The Pyramid of Cestius was incorporated into the circuit of walls known as the Aurelian Walls. The identity of the pyramid was later forgotten, and was only rediscovered sometime in the 1600s. During this time, the pyramid was being restored, and the inscriptions on its faces were uncovered. According to the inscriptions on the east and the west flanks of the pyramid, the structure was built as a tomb for a man called Gaius Cestius Epulo, the son of Lucius, of the tribe of Pobilia. The inscription also mentions that Cestius was a praetor, a tribune of the plebs, and a septemvir of the Epulones (a college of priests responsible for preparing the feasts in honor of the gods). A second inscription announces that the building of this monument was completed in 330 days. [end excerpt]
* "The Pyramid of Caius Cestius built" (1560s, by Antonio Lafreri) [archive.is/DO0bL], see also "The talking statue of Marforio in Rome" (1560s, by Antonio Lafreri) [archive.is/APuXj]
* "Meta Sudans - And other Roman Turning Points" [archive.is/Driv9#selection-559.1-559.62] [begin excerpt] Between Hadrian's tomb and the Circus of Nero (now St. Peter's Square) there was a pyramid shaped structure that was called the Meta Romuli. Here is a view by Pirro Ligorio from 1561 [archive.is/zPFcQ] (extract shown below). It appears to show a lot of things that he could not have actually seen by that date, but is a nice representation. Note the depiction of actual metas at the ends of the spina inside the circus. [end excerpt] close-up of the following at [archive.is/gSBNb] [archive.is/GvWcx]


Etching by Onofrio Panvinio [1530-1568], De Ludis Circensibus, ca. 1600 [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/blue-versus-green-rocking-the-byzantine-empire-113325928/].




The two Pyramids of Romulus and Remus (the surviving Pyramid of Cestius) in the City of Rome do not come with a historical account about the inspiration of the their construction, although Cestius fought in Kush among the similar pyramids built there.




The Pyramid of Remus is featured on the following maps:
* 1472 Masaio Ancient Rome map [archive.is/gwwMS], full image [archive.is/8gbyL]
* 1474 Strozzi Ancient Rome map [archive.is/QTcnw], full image [archive.is/sntQi]
* 1561 Ligorio Rome Map [archive.is/A41Wo], full image [archive.is/hD8E0]
* 1574 Duperac Ancient Rome Map [archive.is/T1bpB], full image [archive.is/T1bpB]

* map of ancient Rome (1561, by Pirro Ligorio):
- Close-ups of the following at [archive.is/33WAv] [archive.is/dKCK6]

- Resembling a pyramid, this object stood adjacent to the Tiber River island shown at this link [archive.is/6hKpw].


Another historical personage whom the Meta was commonly referred to, particularly during the Renaissance, was Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (235–183 BC), the famous roman general who defeated Hannibal.
in the map of ancient Rome by Étienne Duperac (1574) the pyramid is referred to Scipio


The same 15th century text previously quoted (Tractatus de rebus antiquis...), in listing Rome's important palaces, curiously mentions the pyramid a second time with the following words:
"Scipio's palace stood by the 'horse', along the Cornelian way, where it is still visible now."
Such dual interpretation of the monument shows how little reliable were its medieval descriptions; but, on the other hand, this further entry confirms the location of the pyramid in the Vatican area. The aforesaid 'horse' is a simplification of the old name of the site once called coxa caballi ("horse's leg"), later in time Italianized into Scossacavalli, in the heart of Borgo district; up to the 1930s the main local square bore this name (before it disappeared, following some heavy alterations), and also a nearby street is still called via Scossacavalli.
In a map of ancient rome drawn by Pirro Ligorio (1561) the pyramid is labelled Monumentum Sempronii ("Sempronius' monument").

Most visual sources of the Meta Romuli (i.e. etchings, paintings, reliefs, etc.) date back to the 1500s. During this century the revived interest for classicism led many cartographers to draw not only new maps of Rome, whose urban structure was rapidly changing, but also plans of the ancient city, based on the investigation of the many ruins that were still scattered all over the urban area.
Although these maps often featured buildings and monuments no longer extant shaped as the cartographer had imagined them, the Meta Romuli, constantly depicted by Hadrian's tomb (see the several sample pictures), can be considered reasonably faithful to its original look, having been demolished only 50-100 years earlier, thus still lingering in the memory of the elder population.
Only few visual sources of the monument date back to earlier years, prior to the pyramid's destruction; one of them is represented by the bronze doors of St.Peter's basilica, cast in 1445 by the famous sculptor Filarete; in the panel depicting St.Peter's martyrdom, the Meta clearly recognizable in the foreground. But in the opposite corner of the same panel, a similar structure shaped as a pyramid is undoubtly the mysterious Terebinthus mentioned by medieval sources.

the panel of St.Peter's door featuring the saint's crucifiction: the Meta is in the left corner, the Terebinthus in the right one, and in the centre is Hadrian's tomb, later turned into the Castle


No other image of the Terebinthus seems to exist, likely because artists considered the vague description provided by the early guides of Rome insufficient for a graphic rendering of the building.
The Meta survived up to 1499. In that year pope Alexander VI had the main street of Borgo district straightened, and renamed via Alexandrina after himself. For this reason about one half of the pyramid, which obstructed the street, was sacrificed. The surviving part was demolished only a few decades later, in 1564, when the nearby church of Santa Maria in Traspontina was taken down and rebuilt 100 metres off the original spot, where it still stands today.

the Renaissance church of Santa Maria in Traspontina


Leonardo Bufalini's map of Rome (detail on the right), drawn a few years before the last half of the Meta disappeared, clearly shows the pyramid's position in relation to pope Alexander's arrangement of the district. The church of Santa Maria in Traspontina is still featured in its original location, while the Meta, whose floor plan is the dark square labelled as 'the tomb of Scipio Africanus', is crossed by via Alexandrina. The new Santa Maria's church was then built just past this spot.

Bufalini's map (1551): the asterisk marks Santa Maria in Traspontina's still in its old location, while the arrow indicates the spot where the church was rebuilt; the floor plan of the pyramid is clearly visible (dark area along via Alexandrina)

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The earliest depiction of Pyramids found within the Roman Realm -
*  1100s AD (up to 899 years BM), a mosaic from the San Marco, Venice, on one of the domes of St. Mark's Basilica, more images at [archive.is/9s6BT], and as described by "Basilica di San Marco" touristic book [archive.is/Rq8lK]. The mosaic contains a scene from the Biblical story of Joseph in Egypt. The pyramids may be patterned on the pyramids around the Roman Realm, as they do not appear like the Pyramids of Romulus and Remus (today credited as the Pyramid of Cestius) in the City of Roma.



* The Book of John Mandeville (1300s AD) is a travelogue that writes [begin excerpt]: I will speak about something else that is beyond Babylon across the Nile River towards the desert between Africa and Egypt: these are Joseph's Granaries, which he had made to store the wheat for hard times. They are made of well-hewn stone. Two of them are amazingly large and tall and the others are not so big. And each granary has an entrance for going inside a little above the ground, for the land has been ravaged and ruined since the granaries were built. Inside they are completely full of snakes; and outside on these granaries are many writings in different languages. Some say that they are tombs of the great lords of antiquity, but that is not true....if they were tombs, they would not be empty inside, nor would they have entrances for going inside, nor are tombs ever made of such a large size and such a height—which is why it is not to be believed that they are tombs. [end excerpt]
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the pyramid (bottm right) between St.Peter's and the Castle, from an illuminated book of 1456

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The old Pyramid of Remus (or, Cestius) is shown embedded in the city wall, serving the guide as a landmark.
* "Plan of Rome" (c.1469, by Del Massaio), full page [archive.is/F3Ogu]:

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* (1474, Alessandro Strozzi) [archive.is/7tJCS]:

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* "Noah and The Flood" (1452, by Lorenzo Ghiberti):

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* "How God Manifests" woodcut from the 1500’s, probably before the Vatican pyramid in the background was torn down. Attributed to an alchemy-related book of the 1600s.

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* Detail of "The Vision of the Cross" fresco, 1520 by Giulio Romano, Giovanni Francesco Penni and Raffaellino del Colle, (students of Rafael), currently held at the Palace of Vatican, full version [archive.is/qab6K], more images from the gallery [archive.is/OUyhO].

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Published c. 1545 AD (455 years BM), archived at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, posted at [is.gd/A96nTV]:
* "Juno tells Juno of his Love" [archive.is/3vNtr]

* "Triumph of Bacchus" [archive.is/1WmQ5]

* "The Birth of Saint John the Baptist" [archive.is/hS05Q], shown for comparison with the preceding, to display the thoughtful detail

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"There Once Was In Rome... part 5: the Meta Romuli" (roma.andreapollett.com) [archive.is/zEzjG]:

Many are aware of one of ancient Rome's most peculiar landmarks, the pyramid were Gaius Cestius was buried (1st century BC). But this is not the only monument with this shape built in the city. A very similar one once stood in the Vatican area, just outside the north-western boundary of ancient Rome.
Of this second pyramid, whose size was similar to the surviving one, if not even larger, no trace at all is left today. Whether it was older than the aforesaid tomb of Gaius Cestius cannot be told. What we know about the monument mostly comes from several descriptions found in guides of Rome dating back to the 12th-14th centuries, written in medieval Latin and in early Italian, for the benefit of the many pilgrims. Unfortunately, these accounts were not very detailed, but still give us an idea of what the monument looked like, and where it was located.
Encased between the Tiber (east), the Vatican Hill (west) and the Janiculum Hill (south), outside the city boundary, in ancient times the Vatican was rather different from what it is today. There stood the circus built by emperors Gaius (better known as Caligola) and Nero (finished in AD 56).

the pyramid of Gaius Cestius, by St.Paul's Gate


Not far, by the river bank, another outstanding monument was the great tomb of Hadrian (AD 139), whose name changed into Sant'Angelo Castle after having been turned into a fortress.
The pyramid stood between the two landmarks, where the two main roads formed a crossing, just past Nero's Bridge. According to some sources, also a naumachia (naval stadium) stood nearby, but its exact location has never been identified.

map of the Vatican in ancient Rome: the spot where the Meta Romuli stood is marked in red,
the urban area is coloured in pink, and the main buildings yet to come are outlined with a dotted line


the Meta Romuli, between the Circus of Nero and the Tomb of Hadrian (whose base is seen at the back), from a map of ancient Rome by Pirro Ligorio (1561)


During the Middle Ages the impressiveness of the white pyramid indeed caught the imagination of common people, who related it to famous roman heroes.
It was known as Meta Romuli (Romulus' Meta), because its shape recalled the pillars used in ancient circuses to mark the two ends of the track, called metae; the pyramids built in Rome had a sharper angle (i.e. were narrower) than the Egyptian ones. But art historian Umberto Gnoli, in a work about Rome's topography (1939), claimed that in medieval Latin this word had a meaning of 'hostel', thus the monument may have been called a meta because included in a building that acted as an inn for pilgrims. In fact, during the Middle Ages many family houses and small fortresses incorporated ancient ruins left standing, in order to grant the building a greater steadiness, as in those years the building techniques were rather primitive.

According to a popular belief, the mythical founder of Rome, Romulus, was buried in the pyramid. Some sources also refer to this monument more explicitly as 'Romulus' tomb'. This was clearly a legend. But the name Meta Romuli became so common that, during the Middle Ages, the now surviving pyramid of Gaius Cestius, despite bearing an inscription with his name, was known as Meta Remi (the meta of Remus, i.e. Romulus' brother), in opposition to the one in the Vatican, which evidently was better known by the people.

Another name the pyramid was commonly known with is Borgo's Meta, after the district that during the early Middle Ages had spread over the Vatican plains, or St.Peter's Meta.

Most of the sources that describe the Meta Romuli also mention a second tall building that stood very close to the pyramid, more often referred to as Terebinthus of Nero, (but in some cases as Terabintum, or Tiburtinum i.e. "made of travertine marble"), whose purpose and age are also unknown. Provided that it did not exist only in the fantasy of medieval authors, it might have collapsed or been destroyed much earlier than the Meta Romuli, as all texts refer to it in terms of there once was..., in times during which the pyramid was still standing.

view of Borgo district, in 1493: the pyramid (centre) towered over the surrounding houses, but there is no trace of the Terebinthus


today's look of the place: once in the central part of the picture stood the old buildings, among which the early church of Santa Maria Traspontina


Furthermore, several sources say that the marble which the two aforesaid buildings were lined with was used for the making of the old St.Peter's basilica (finished in AD 349); in fact, when the proscription of the Christian religion came to an end, under emperor Constantine I (4th century), it became a common practice to take away marble and other valuable material from abandoned pagan temples for building new churches.
Therefore, by the time the guides were written, the Terebinthus may have not been there any longer, whereas the Meta Romuli was still standing in the late 15th century.

The following passages are taken from 12th-13th century works in which the pyramid and the Terebinthus are described. By clicking on the link, the original text can be read.

from Mirabilia Urbis Romae (the wonders of the city of Rome), c.12th century [archive.is/wnV5Z] -
XX. about the Meta and Nero's Tiburtinum [Terebinthus].
By the Naumachia is the tomb of Romulus, which is called Meta, and was covered with fine stone [marble], out of which the floor and the stairway of St.Peter's were made. It had a 20-foot open space around it, made of travertine marble, with its own drainage gutter and flowers.
Next to it stood Nero's tiburtinum [Terebinthus], as tall as Hadrian's Castle, covered with fine stone, out of which the steps and the courtyard [of St.Peter's] were built. This round building had two round walls in a fashion similar to the Castle, whose top part was covered with marble slabs for the water to drip; by this spot the saint apostle Peter was crucified. [end excerpt]

from Le miracole de Roma (the wonders of the city of Rome), c.13th century [archive.is/wnV5Z] -
III. about the Meta and the Castle.
By the Naumachia is the tomb of Romulus, which is called St.Peter's Meta. It was covered with fine marble, out of which the floor and the stairway of St.Peter's was made. It had a 20-foot open space around it, made of travertine marble, with a drainage gutter in which the water of the Meta's open space flowed.
IV. about Nero's Terebinthus.
Beside the Meta stood Nero's Terebinthus, as tall as Hadrian's Castle. It was covered with large slabs. And it had two round walls, in a fashion similar to the Castle. And the upper part of the walls was covered with large marble slabs for the water [as waterproof cover]. The Terebinthus stood next to the spot where the saint apostle Peter was crucified, and where now stands the church of Santa Maria in Trasbedina [Traspontina]. [end excerpt]

from Graphia aureae urbis Romae (account of the sublime city of Rome), late 12th century [archive.is/wnV5Z] -
By the Naumachia is the tomb of Romulus, which is called Meta; it used to be covered with fine stone, out of which the floor and the stairway of St.Peter's were made. It had a 20-foot open space made of travertine marble all around it, with a drainage gutter and flowers of its own.
Next to it stood Nero's Terebinthus, as tall as Hadrian's memorial, covered with fine stone, out of which the steps and the courtyard [of St.Peter's] were built. This round building had two round walls, in the fashion of the memorial, whose top part was covered with marble slabs for the water to drip; by this spot the saint Apostle Peter was crucified. [end excerpt]

According to another version of the legend, the pyramid in Borgo district was not Romulus' burial, but the one of his brother Remus.
from Tractatus de rebus antiquis et situ urbis Romae ("essay about antiquities and the site of the city of Rome"), by an anonymous author, early 15th century [archive.is/wnV5Z] -
By the Almachia [a corruption of Naumachia], that is to say by Santa Maria in Traspontina's church, stands the meta which, it is said, was the tomb of Remulus [i.e. Remus], killed on the Janus [likely, the nearby Janiculus hill] by order of Romulus; and with regard to this meta, as I already said, I am in doubt that it may have not been built by Romulus for Remulus, because in those days Romulus and his clan did not have so much power. I cannot find another origin that can be relied on; but in any case, it was very beautiful, covered as it was with marble slabs, which emperor Constantine had Saint Peter's floor built and decorated with. The aforesaid meta had a circle of twenty steps around it, and a hight of ten feet, with a patio in travertine marble, a drainage gutter and a hole. In front of it stood Nero's Terabintum [Terebinthus], which was built over the remains of the Temple of Jupiter: from this building comes the fountain's basin in the square, in which the parasite priests preached in the time when the Terabintum was there. After its destruction, a temple of Diana was built, and Hadrian's great tomb with the bridge, which today is called Sant'Angelo Castle, as will be said further, according to what can be read in the inscriptions, up to emperor Crescentius, who changed its name into Crescentius' Castle, and the aforesaid name Sant'Angelo Castle, chosen by saint pope Gregory, has been haded down up to our days. [end excerpt]

the Vatican area with the 'tomb of Romulus', in a map of Rome by Pietro del Massaio (1472)


The legend about the origin of the pyramid misled even cultured people, such as Petrarch. Around 1440-50 Poggio Bracciolini, a distinguished man of letters, wrote [archive.is/wnV5Z]:
Furthermore in the Vatican stands a large-sized pyramid, similar to a massive building, free from any ornament. (...) What surprises most, being the inscription still preserved, is that Francis Petrarch, a most learned man, wrote in one of his letters that this is the tomb of Remus; I believe that, following the popular belief, he did not make an in-depth investigation of the inscription, covered by branches, in reading which those who came after him, yet being less cultured, proved to be more careful. [end excerpt]



Map excerpt showing Central Asia (1550, Desceliers' World Map; as published in "New Found Lands" page 128):








The following extracts from the map show other types of buildings, provided for comparison with the extracts showing the pyramids. The author of the map displays a typical rendition of pyramids based on the pyramids of Rome and other cities in the geographic vicinity, alongside typical Latin architecture is place cities in foreign lands on the map.





This image may show a depiction of The Pyramid of Romulus or of Remus, a structure still intact when the etching was created but which was torn down on orders of the Pope to build a new structure, and which shows that there was a distinctive Pyramid motif in Rome itself which artists reflected.
* "The Brothers, Disputing Over the Founding of Rome, Consult the Augurs" plate 7 from the series "The Story of Romulus and Remus" (1575, etching by Giambattista Fontana) [archive.is/Ny738], image [archive.is/pbhsi]:




* extract from the frontspiece to "Turris Babel" (1679, by Athanasius Kircher) [http://is.gd/Q5yCpU]:



* "A view of Borghetto", by Hendrik Frans van Lint (Antwerp 1684-1763 Rome), at the Lo studio [archive.is/Q1eD9], citation from (christies.com)[is.gd/KbiC6M]



* With Trajan's Column And The Pryamid Of Cestius (after) Giovanni Paolo Panini [archive.is/HceqS]


* "Capriccio Architettonico Con Figure E Piramide Sul Fondo" by (after) Giovanni Paolo Panini 1691/92-1765 (Italy) [archive.is/RHccZ]


Capriccio con rovine e la Basilica di Vicenza, la piramide di Caio Cestio, l'arco di Castantino.
Autore: canaletto


A capriccio of classical ruins with the Pyramid of Cestius (after) Giovanni Paolo Panini


* A capriccio of Roman ruins with a soldier and other figures (after) Giovanni Paolo Panini [archive.is/7SdQV]


* A capriccio of classical ruins with figures (after) Giovanni Paolo Panini [archive.is/IeTrz]


A Capriccio of Roman Ruins with Soldiers resting in the foreground (after) Giovanni Paolo Panini [archive.is/D4foN]


* A Landscape With Classical Ruins And Figures Resting In The Foreground (after) Giovanni Paolo Panini [archive.is/1CfML]


* An Architectural Capriccio With Stonemasons On Classical Ruins (after) Giovanni Paolo Panini [archive.is/8cmQw]


* An architectural capriccio with the Colosseum (after) Giovanni Paolo Panini [archive.is/Rc3A4]



Giovanni Battista (also Giambattista) Piranesi (Italian pronunciation: [dʒoˈvanni batˈtista piraˈnesi]; 4 October 1720 – 9 November 1778) was an Italian artist famous for his etchings of Rome and of fictitious and atmospheric "prisons" [archive.is/8YM5u]:



Pyramids are also still incorporated in certain churches.

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The Arian Church, the Council of Nicea, and Muhammad

Note: The proprietor of this website is neither an expert in the history of dar Umma, or of the Arab nations and sects. The following articles are presented not as "the final word" on the subject, but to present clues as to how the Arab people and dar Umma may fit into a New Chronology. Being secular, this website makes no pretensions as to what spiritual doctrine is "spiritually correct", and the this webpage is not intended on harming the historical legacy of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).


* "St. John of Damascus’s Critique of Islam" [archive.is/O0lqB] [begin excerpt]: The following passage is from Saint John’s monumental work, the Fount of Knowledge, part two entitled "Heresies in Epitome: How They Began and Whence They Drew Their Origin". It is usually just cited as "Heresies". The translator’s introduction points out that Fount of Knowledge is one of the most “important single works produced in the Greek patristic period,…offering as it does an extensive and lucid synthesis of the Greek theological science of the whole period. It is the first great Summa of theology to appear in either the East or the West.” Saint John (+ 749) is considered one of the great Fathers of the Church, and his writings hold a place of high honor in the Church. His critique of Islam, or “the heresy of the Ishmaelites,” is especially relevant for our times.
[begin passage from "Heresies" book] There is also the superstition of the Ishmaelites which to this day prevails and keeps people in error, being a forerunner of the Antichrist. They are descended from Ishmael, [who] was born to Abraham of Agar, and for this reason they are called both Agarenes and Ishmaelites. They are also called Saracens, which is derived from Sarras kenoi, or destitute of Sara, because of what Agar said to the angel: ‘Sara hath sent me away destitute.’ These used to be idolaters and worshiped the morning star and Aphrodite, whom in their own language they called Khabár, which means great. And so down to the time of Heraclius they were very great idolaters. From that time to the present a false prophet named Mohammed has appeared in their midst. This man, after having chanced upon the Old and New Testaments and likewise, it seems, having conversed with an Arian monk, devised his own heresy. Then, having insinuated himself into the good graces of the people by a show of seeming piety, he gave out that a certain book had been sent down to him from heaven. He had set down some ridiculous compositions in this book of his and he gave it to them as an object of veneration. [end excerpt]

THE GREAT HERESIES (by Hilaire Belloc) Chapter Four: The Great and Enduring Heresy of Mohammed [archive.is/q1nPS]

* "The Origins of Islam: A Christian Heresy Among the Arabs" [archive.is/N8c9D], a book review to complement this earlier book review [archive.is/QLsnx].

* "Origin of Islam from Arianism" [archive.is/CEV10]

Adapted from "Muhammad Was NOT The Founder Of Islam" by Theodore Shoebat, introduction [archive.is/wW9uK], main body (.pdf) [http://is.gd/jwezp1]:
Muhammad was NOT the founder of Islam. Islam is simply an Arabian extension of a heresy called Arianism, or the denial of Christ’s divinity, which was founded by Arius in the 4th century. Muhammad simply continued the heresy by converting to Arianism, adding to it some other beliefs, and calling it Islam. I did a whole video on this:
That Muhammad was an Arian heretic is supported by several ancient Christian documents.  Constantine Porphyrogentinitus, the fourth emperor of the Byzantine Empire, wrote in the 10th century, in his Administrando Imperio, that "he [Muhammad] was believed because a certain Arain, who pretended to be a monk, testified falsely in his support for love of gain." (Constantine Porphyrogentinitus, De Administrando Imperio, 14, trans. R.J.H. Jenkins, brackets mine)
John the Deacon also recounts an Arian origin to Islam: "The Saracens [Muslims] are intent and zealous to deny the divinity of the Word of God. On all sides, they array themselves against him, eager to show that he is neither God nor the Son of God. Indeed, it was only because their false prophet [Muhammad] was the disciple of an Arian that he gave them this godless and impious teaching." (Refutations of the Saracens by Theodore Abu Qurrah, the Bishop of Haran, as Reported by John the Deacon, GK86-88, trans. John C. Lamoreaux)
Islam’s link with Arianism was affirmed by one of the oldest non-Muslims writers on Islam, St. John of Damascus, when he, in the 8th century, wrote: "This man [Muhammad], after having chanced upon the Old and New Testaments and likewise, it seems, having conversed with an Arian monk, devised his own heresy." (St. John of Damascus, On Heresies, 101, trans. Frederic H. Chase, Jr., brackets mine)
You do not begin the history of Islam with Muhammad, but with Arius.
Amongst the greatest examples as to why heresy is dangerous is that of Arius, the
most influential heretic on Muhammad's cult. (1) His heresy was the worst to have
emerged with the Roman Empire. (2) He was an Egyptian presbyter who was
enrolled in the church of Alexandria as an expositor of the Scriptures. (3) In order
for us to fully comprehend the tyranny of Islam and heresy, we must first expound
on the history of Arianism, and how, like Muhammad's cult, it implemented violence
on Christians in trying to force them to renounce the Trinity when it eventually took
substantial control over the government. (4)
Arius coveted the priestly position of the bishop Alexander, his jealousy taking such
a hold on him that he sought to destroy the Church by contriving his own heresy.
Since Alexander had strictly upheld and preached the Holy Trinity, Arius attempted
to refute this eternal truth by teaching that Christ was created and thus at one point
did not exist, and therefore could not have been equal with the Father. This belief,
because of its confusing of the person of Christ, appealed even to pagans. He
began to teach this to as many people as he could reach, making public
declarations of his blasphemy, and after many disputes and attempts at reasoning
with him, Alexander had no choice but to oust out Arius from the church. (5) Other
very learned men contended strongly with Arius and his followers, such as St.
Augustine, St. Jerome, St. Hillary of Poitiers, and St. Gregory of Nazianzus. (6)
The Satanic nature of Arias and his ilk was exposed by Alexander in his letter to
another Alexander, the bishop of Constantinople, describing how the Arians
"trampled upon the religion of the church", being "instigated by Satanic agency"
and "skillful in deception," circulating "specious letters, calculated to delude the
simple and unwary." They lied to bishops about their hatred for the Trinity,
convincing them to accept their sect so that they could simply say that high
members of the church agreed with them. (7)
This is the type of operation which Glenn Beck is conducting, since he has been
getting top leaders of American Christianity to accept his false theology.
Not only were they of a demonic and deceptive nature, but a violent one as well.
Like Islam, they would come in the name of peace to deceive with the intent of
bloodshed, daily rallying for persecutions against Christians, and making false
accusations toward them before judges so as to get them punished. (7)
Such is no different than what the Muslims have been doing against Christians.
Islamic Sheiks today have, with their savage speeches, provoked mobs to execute
crimes toward churches and the saints. Islam was nothing knew, Arianism before it
influenced many, as is often the case, it soon overran the whole of Egypt, Libya,
and the further Thebaid, eventually extending to the other cities and provinces of
the empire, and completely dividing the saints. (8) When the emperor Constantine
had heard of this, he sent a letter to Arius and Alexander calling for mutual respect
between the two divisions; but this was done to no avail, and Arianism extended to
all of the eastern provinces of the empire. (9)
Constantine efficiently responded to this dilemma by gathering together over two
hundred bishops from all parts of the empire into an assembly: thus was the
Council of Nicea in 325. (10) During the assembly, a group of Arian bishops wrote
up their statement of faith and presented it to the rest of the attendants. Instead of
giving it recognition, the other bishops honorably teared it to pieces, and all but two
of them stood up and declared that Arias must be excommunicated. (11) The
Council concluded their statement of faith, or the Nicene Creed, in which it was
stated:
"I Believe in one God, the Father Almighty, the Maker of all things, whether visible
or invisible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the word of God, God of God, Light of
light, Life of life, the only begotten Son, the First-born of all creatures, begotten of
the Father before all ages; by whom all things were made: who for our salvation
took upon him our nature, and dwelt with men. He suffered and rose again the third
day, and ascended to the Father; and he will come again in glory to judge the living
and the dead." (12)
Constantine accepted the Creed, and was the first to testify that it was most
orthodox, imploring others to sign it in agreement, with the addition that the term
"consubstantial"--which meant that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were one--be
used when describing the Holy Trinity. (13) The Council also affirmed that the "holy
catholic and apostolical church condemns all those who say that there was a
period in which the Son of God did not exist; that before he was begotten he had no
existence; that he was called out of nothing into being; that he is of a different
nature and of a different substance from the father; and that he is susceptible of
variation or change." (14) This went against all that Arius stood for, and in the
future, the Creed would also spearhead the doctrine of Muhammad.
In 335, Arius traveled to Constantinople where he would meet Constantine who,
upon his arrival, asked the heretic if he believed in the true doctrine of the Church.
Arius responded that he upheld orthodoxy, presenting to the emperor his statement
of faith, which omitted his belief against the Trinity. After declaring upon oath that
he did no subscribe to the heretical views which he in fact taught, Constantine gave
him leave with these words: "If your faith be orthodox, your oaths are honourable;
but if you do not really hold that belief which you have professed upon oath, God
will judge you from heaven." Afterwards, Arius' supporters desired to restore the
heretic to the Church, an idea unthinkable to Alexander, the bishop of
Constantinople. Mournful, Alexander retired into his church, and in lamentations
beseeched God to prevent Arius' restoration.
"If Arius," he said, "is to be joined to the Church tomorrow, dismiss me thy servant,
and do not destroy the pious with the impious. …Cut off Arius, lest if he enter into
communion with the Church, heresy enter also, and impiety be found conjoined
with piety." The next day had come, and Arius triumphantly and boldly began to
give a series of speeches; but as he spoke he was abruptly distracted by
something; he suddenly fell down, and death came upon him. (15) But his seeds of
evil continued to grow despite his decease. Eusebius, the bishop of Nicomedia,
being a fervent supporter of the Arians and their doctrine, gained the concern and
weary of the emperor. Constantine took measures against the spread of Arianism,
this being attested by these concluding words of his letter to the Nicomedians: "If
any one should make mention of those destroyers [the Arians], or presume to
speak in their praise, let him know that his audacity will be repressed by the
authority which has been committed to me as the servant of God. May God
preserve you, beloved brethren!" (16) Eusebius was then deposed and banished,
being replaced by one Amphio. (17)
The treachery of the Arians was later exemplified by their conspiring against
Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, in that they had accused him before Constantine
of trying to usurp the royal throne. Constantine, after hearing the bishop's defense,
acquitted Athanasius of the charge, and then sent a letter to Alexandria in which he
announced: "Believe me, my brethren, the wicked were unable to effect any thing
against your bishop." (18)
But the justice of Constantine, as well as his defense of the Faith against the deceit
of Arianism, would come to an end after his death. For, Constantine II, his son, was
soon beguiled, and accepted the Arian heresy. How this happened, can be briefly
explained: Constantine's sister, Constantia, had a deep friendship with a certain
Arian monk, though this fact was concealed from the emperor. Because of her
liking of this heretic, she bade her brother to bring him under his protection, a
request which he fulfilled. When Constantine was on his death bed, he was unable
to show his will to his sons on account of their absence, leaving him no choice but
to request the Arian monk, who was present, to give it to them. After the heretic
gave the will to Constantine II, a bond grew between the two, and the monk would
have an immense influence on the new emperor, instructing him in the apostasy of
Arius. Having now the zeal of a heretic, Constantine II went against everything his
father stood for, taking in a group of Arian bishops as his advisors, and afflicting all
kinds of cruelty on the saints. (19) Christians who had immense influence, freedom,
and state support under Constantine, in a breath, lost it all under his son. (20)
He banished Paul, the bishop of Constantinople, to Cappadocia where he would
shortly be murdered by Arians. In the words of Athanasius, "they had him [Paul]
strangled, by order of Philip the pro-consul, who was the protector of their heresy,
and the active agent of their most atrocious projects." (21) A council was held in
Sardica to dispute for the cause of Athanasius, a bishop was who banished by the
Arians. The assembly was attended by not only bishops, but victims, alongside
their families, of Arian tyranny. Arian bishops had attended the meeting, but once
they realized that the members of the synod upheld the Trinity, and that they were
with those who they had persecuted, they left in rage. (22) In the synodical letter
from the bishops assembled in Sardica, it was written that the Arians
"used chains, and the sword, as the engines of their cruelty. Several individual
were present whom they [the Arians] had exiled: others came forward as deputies
from those still kept in exile. The relations and friends of those whom they had put
to death also attended: and what was of most importance, bishops also appeared
against them; one of whom exhibited the irons and the chains with they had bound
him. There were also witnesses to testify that the death of many others had been
occasioned by their calumnies. Their infatuation led them to such excess that they
even attempted the life of a bishop; and he would have fallen a sacrifice to their
fury, had he not escaped from their hands. Theodulos, our fellow-minister, of
blessed memory, died while striving to make his escape from them; for, on account
of their calumnies, he had been condemned to death. Some showed the wounds
which with the swords of these persecutors had inflicted on them; others deposed
that they had been exposed to the torments of famine." (23)
All of these atrocities and oppressions were not done by mere individuals, but
entire Arian churches, the ministers of which used the Roman military to kill
Christians. The Arians would denude virgins, set churches on fire, and have
Christians imprisoned, all for the purpose of exalting Arianism, and punishing those
who refused to accept their heresy. In the synod, two men who had left Arianism for
the true faith, Macarius, bishop of Palestine, and Asterius, bishop of Arabia, spoke
of the violence they received by the heretics for their reconversion. They informed
the synod that they were many within the Arian movement who still held orthodox
beliefs, but were kept from joining the council by both threats and empty promises,
being even forced to remain in a single house, never being allowed, even for the
briefest moment, to be alone. (24)
The bishop Athanasius was justly permitted to return back to his church in
Alexandria by the emperor, but his Arian advisors, violently wanting to end their
great opponent, convinced him to put the saint to death. On one evening, as
Athanasius was with his congregation, and army of soldiers surrounded the church
demanding for his life. The bishop, though he had the chance to escape
immediately, waited for the congregants to exit the church for safety. "It is better," he
said, "for me to meet the danger alone, than that any of our people should
experience the least injury." When the greater number of the people left, and the
rest following after them, Athanasius was led by monks and some of the clergy out
of the church, and under the cover of darkness, he made his way to a life of exile.
(25)
With Athanasius gone, the Arians replaced him with a man of their own ilk, George.
He was a ministerial tyrant for his cult who hated Christians with such demoniacal
frenzy that he executed various sadistic cruelties inflicted on the congregation. To
do this, George hired a military chief by the name of Sebastian to see to it that the
doctrine of Arius was enforced. Women who took an oath of chastity were thrown
into prison, bishops bound and dragged, the homes of widows and orphans were
pillaged and attacked, and Christians were, under the den of night, arrested and
taken away from their houses. A week after Pentecost, the congregants gathered
together to pray that God deliver them from the despotic hand of George.
The sinister bishop ordered that these poor saints be punished for going against
him and his heresy. Sebastian charged them with his soldiers, and though by the
time they arrived most of them had left on account of the late hour, his sadistic
desires remained to be quenched. He ordered a huge fire to be made, brought next
to it two virgins, and as Muslim do to their victims, ordered them to denounce their
faith and accept Arianism. Their obstinate refusal was to his wrath, and Sebastian
told his men to beat the virgins until "they became scarcely recognizable."
Forty men were then seized, and ordered to be flogged with palm tree branches
covered in thorns. They were beaten so horrendously that some even died, while
others had thorns driven so deeply into their bodies that they could not remove
them without surgical operation. The survivors were banished to the Greater Oasis,
while the dead were refused burial. (26) How could one read such a story, and not
recognize the immense strength of spirit which these saints of old harbored within
their souls? The eyes of the wicked noticed the saints for the pureness of their
works, and as they bore their cross, they suffered under cruel men whose minds
were rooted in the earth, only to die the death of the flesh and have their souls
ascend to the eternal realm of Heaven. To those who endured this persecution and
were not allowed to bury their dead, Athanasius wrote:
"Let none of you be grieved on account of these impious heretics having prohibited
the honours of sepulture from being rendered to you. The impiety of the Arians has
reached such a height, that they block up the entrances, and sit like so many
demons around the places of sepulcher in order to prevent the dead from being
interred." (27)
Athanasius would remain in exile until being allowed to return to his church in
Alexandria by the emperor Julian in 361. (28)
One of the greatest examples of Christian fortitude is found in the actions of Pope
Felix II; for he had fearlessly declared that Constantine II was a heretic. Enraged,
the emperor ordered him to be arrested and beheaded, alongside other saints,
beside the adequate of Trajan. His body was soon recovered by Christians who
came to his place of execution at night, and he was buried on the Via Aurelia. (29)
Maximus, the bishop of Jerusalem, was a zealot of the Faith and an enemy of the
Arian cause. He persevered in his fight against the evil doctrine, and continued
even after the Arians cut off his eye and severed his right arm. (30)
What we also learn from the history of Arianism, is how heresy will always unite
itself with paganism and depravity. This is why Muslims today will unite with
Leftists, environmentalists and homosexuals. Because of the denial of the Trinity,
order was rejected, the disorder of idolatry and heathenism rushed in with open
arms, and the Arians accepted the pagans as allies against the Christians.
Thus why Christ said that "if Satan cast out Satan, he is divided against
himself" (31). Lucian, the Arian bishop of Alexandria who replaced the exiled
Athanasius, used a heathen mob to decimate the saints. He accompanied himself
with one Magnus, a pagan who was known as a hater of liberty and piety: when the
idolater Julian was emperor, he burned a church down in Phoenicia; and in the
reign of the Christian Jovian he was forced to rebuild it at his own expense. But
under the succeeding Arian emperor Valens, the pagans were again empowered
and encouraged. Idolatrous rituals which were done in secret under Constantine,
were now done out in the open under the Arian power, and Valens, in his hatred for
the Cross, called the pagans to revive their reign of terror against the Church. (32)
The heathens in Alexandria, by the demand of Lucian, seized Christian virgins,
stripped them completely naked and clubbed them to death; and anyone who
protested was automatically assaulted by the savage crowed. In their ambush of
the city's church, one pagan sodomite, who renounced his male identity and
dressed as a woman, danced upon the altar mockingly calling for the Holy Ghost.
Another made himself entirely nude and seated himself on the episcopal chair. All
of the other scoundrels saluted him, and he then gave a speech declaring
homosexuality, licentiousness, theft and gluttony as superior to righteousness.
When Lucian entered the church, the vandals all saluted him, praised his Arianism
and proclaimed that he was under the favor of the Egyptian god Serapis.
"Welcome, O bishop," they said, "welcome to you, who deny the Son [Jesus Christ]!
Serapis, who loves you, has brought you here!" His accomplice Magnus seized
nineteen presbyters and deacons and compelled them to renounce the Trinity, his
words being:
"Assent, O wretched men, assent to the Arian doctrines. Even if your religion be
true, God will forgive you for having renounced it, for you are not now acting
voluntarily, but by compulsion. What is done from constraint is excusable;
voluntarily actions alone carry with them their own condemnation. Therefore, reflect
upon the reasons which I have brought before you, and sign, without delay, the
doctrine of Arius, which is now preached by Lucius. You may be certain that, if you
accede to this injunction, you will receive riches, gifts, and honours, from the
emperors. But if you will refuse obedience, you will be imprisoned, tortured, and
scourged; you will be deprived of all your wealth and possession, driven from your
country, and banished to a sterile and inhospitable region." (33)
They refused, and were eventually sentenced to be put in a ship and banished to
Phoenicia. As they were being conveyed into the ship, their fellow Christians
weeped for them. Their tears and lamentations were to the cruelty of the pagans;
Palladius, prefect of Alexandria, prohibited at that moment any citizen from
expressing grief for their ministers. Those who refused to take heed to this
tyrannical restraint endured the end of whips and blades and were then sent to the
mines as slaves. A deacon was then arrested for carrying a letter from Damasus,
bishop of Rome; his hands were bound behind his back, his head was beaten with
stones and masses of lead, and he was then thrown into the ship with his other
brethren. (34)
Later, this same Lucian was commissioned by the emperor to ordain a man named
Moses to be a bishop. But when Moses came to the church in Alexandria and saw
that it was Lucian, he confronted him with these words: "God forbid that I should
receive ordination at your hands; for the grace of the Spirit is not given in answer to
your prayers." When Lucian asked why he had such sentiments, Moses declared,
with righteous indignation:
"I say what I positively know, not what I conjecture. You oppose the apostolical
doctrines, and you speak against them; and the iniquity of your actions coincides
with the blasphemy of your words. Whom have you not employed to disturb the
assemblies of the church? Which of the eminent men have you not exiled? What
inhumanity can be compared, in point of cruelty, to that exhibited in your daily
actions?" (35)
In Antioch, a number of clergymen and monks were banished to Asia Minor for
protesting against Arianism, where they all perished upon arrival. *Theodoret. Hist.
Eccles. 4.23* The Arians in Constantinople forced numerous presbyters to get on a
ship and sail to sea as exiles. Subsequently, another ship manned by Arians
followed them, and when they had approached them, they set their ship to flames.
The Christians, unable to escape the burning ship, made their grave in the sea,
and their home in heaven. (36)
All of these commenced on the permission of the emperor Valens, who was so evil
that many of the saints came before him with fearless zealotry, chastising his
wickedness. When Vetranion, the bishop of Scythia, saw Valens he was moved by
that sublime zeal against tyranny which God gives us, and repeated with a loud
voice a Psalm of David: "I shall speak of thy testimonies before kings, and shall not
be ashamed". (37)
Pope John I, an indefatigable opponent to the Arian cause in the sixth century,
showed no fear when he reconverted Arian churches. These actions were noticed
by the emperor Theodoric, an ardent follower of Arianism, and he threatened to
destroy all of Italy if the pope did not cease. He killed many Christians and priests
by the sword, and had executed the two senators Boethius and Symachus. John
was soon thrown into prison, with other devout senators, and was forced into
confinement until death. (38)
Muhammad intermixed this heresy with his native paganism, making a religion
which did away with some of the most complex concepts in Christianity: the Trinity
and the Incarnation. (39) Therefore, the expansionist ambitions of Muhammad was
to not only to spread idolatry, but unitarianism all throughout the world by the
sword, just as the Arians enforced their heretical doctrine through violence. The
great Muslim leader Akbah expressed this violent unitarianism when he spoke of
his desire to go
"to the unknown kingdoms of the West, preaching the unity of thy [Allah's] holy
name, and putting to the sword the rebellious nations who worship any other gods
than thee." (40)
The "unity" here mentioned refers to the anti-Trinitarian nature of Allah, while the
"rebellious nations" and "gods" allude to the countries of Christendom and the
Godhead--that is, Father, Son, Holy Spirit.
 All of the atrocities committed by the Arians can be found being done in a similar
fashion in the earliest history of Muslims. There lies a story which sums up the war
between orthodoxy and apostasy. It begins in 743 AD with a tax official named
Peter of Maiouma, who being ill one day, was visited by some friendly Arabs. Peter
did not angle his position when speaking with them, nor did he hide his true
convictions in the fear of offending them or making these Muslims feel isolated.
"You should gain a reward from God for visiting me," he said to the Arabs, "even if
you friends are outside the faith. I want you to be my eyewitnesses that this is the
situation: everyone who does not believe in the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit,
in consubstantiality, and in the Trinity in Unity which rules life, has maimed his soul
and deserved eternal punishment. Even your false prophet Muhammad is such a
person, and a forerunner of the Antichrist. If you are convinced by my testimony
about the heaven and earth, abandon his mythology today, lest you be punished
with him: for I feel goodwill toward you." (41)
This saint did not proclaim such words to receive their favor or their acceptance, he
did it in the truest sense of Christian love. Modern Christians today repeatedly say
that "God is love", and therefore we should never expose or chide evil when we
see it. This is not love, but evil in its purest form; for who does not want us to fight
against the forces of darkness but the Devil himself? To love is to combat and
content, to strive and to struggle, without remorse, the entities in this world which
want us to come not to God, but to sinister creeds that leave man to nothing but
misery. What happened to our saint Peter of Maiouma? The Muslims left him alone,
and thought that his illness may have caused his bout of zeal.
They returned the next expecting a nicer, more tolerant and diplomatic Peter.
"Anathema to Muhammad," he cried, "to his false writings, and to everyone who
believes in him." His zealotry stirred the demoniacal spirits within the friendly
Arabs, and they, following the oppressive ways of the Arians before him, took their
swords and killed him. (42) Such a story captures the reality of this war between
good and evil, and in many battles for man's soul, the wicked usually prevail over
the saints. To many this may seem as a proof that saints are the losers, and their
doctrine is false; but as a few jewels in a desert of dust bring out their beauty more
pristinely, so does the truth show itself more unique and beautiful when its
followers are few. The fight between Islam and Christianity is a major part of this
war; so let us see its true history, and honor the martyrs who fought for the glory of
the Cross, and the downfall of that Antichrist religion of Muhammad.
From this history, we understand that Christian heresy is just as dangerous as any
other tyrannical system, such as communism. We cannot let its facade of holiness
deceive us; its sophistry charm us, nor its "good values" gain our acceptance. If we
don't then heresy will entirely override us, and by then will we be affirming that
theology does indeed matter.
(1) See De Croce, Refutation of the Koran, ch. i, p. 9
(2) Moczar, Seven Lies about Catholic History, ch. iv, p. 81
(3) Theodoret. Eccles. Hist. 1.2; 2.29, trans. & ed. Samuel Bagster and Sons
(4) See Moczar, Seven Lies about Catholic History, ch. iv, p. 81
(5) Theodoret. Eccles. Hist. 1.2; Moczar, Seven Lies about Catholic History, ch. iv,
p. 81
(6) De Croce, Refutation of the Koran, preface, p. 5
(7) Theodoret. Eccles. Hist. 1.4
(8) Eusebius, Life of Constantine, 2.31
(9) Ibid, 2.34-35
(10) Eusebius, Life of Constantine, 2.8; Theodoret. Eccles. Hist. 1.8. Eusebius says
the number was 250 bishops, while Theodoretus suggests that it was 270
(11) Theodoret. Eccles. Hist. 1.7
(12) Ibid, 1.12
(13) Theodoret. Eccles. Hist. 1.12; see also Moczar, Seven Lies about Catholic
History, ch. iv, p. 82
(14) Ibid, 1.12
(15) Ibid, 1.14, ellipses mine
(16) Ibid, 1.20, brackets mine
(17) Ibid, 1.20, brackets mine
(18) Ibid, 1.27
(19) Ibid, 2.3
(20) See Moczar, Seven Lies about Catholic History, ch. iv, p. 82
(21) Theodoret. Eccles. 2.5
(22) Ibid, 2.7-8
(23) Ibid, 2.8, brackets mine
(24) Ibid, 2.8
(25) Ibid, 2.14
(26) Ibid, 2.14
(27) Ibid, 2.14
(28) Ibid, 3.4
(29) The Book of the Popes, 38: Felix, trans. Louise Ropes Loomis
(30) Theodoret. Eccles. Hist. 2.26
(31) Matthew 12:25
(32) Ibid, 4.22, 27
(33) Ibid, 4.22
(34) Ibid, 4.22
(35) Ibid, 4.23
(36) Ibid, 4.24
(37) Ibid, 4.35
(38) Book of the Popes, 55: John I, trans. Louise Ropes Loomis
(39) Hilaire Belloc, The Crusades, ch. ii, p. 8
(40) In Gibbon, Decline and Fall, vol. v, ch. l, p. 953, brackets mine
(41) Chron. Theophan. Annus Mundi 6234
(42) Ibid 6234


* "Islam: No historical mention of a ‘prophet’ called Muhammad up to 732 A.D. Was he a Caliph?" [archive.is/tcqTq]

* "Ancient Birmingham Koran ‘could have belonged to world’s first ever Muslim’ " (2015-12-23, rt.com) [archive.is/jU2e8]

The Great Walls of China, a chronological database of Depictions and Descriptions

"The Great Wall" is the description given for a series of fortified walls throughout the history of the civilization based in the Yellow River basin and vicinity.

"The Great Wall" is also the descriptive for the portion of fortified walls shown in the following photos:



* "Minimum intervention highlighted in Great Wall preservation" (2017-06-06, news.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-06/06/c_136344763.htm) [archive.fo/vebP2] [begin excerpt]: The Great Wall, a symbol of China, is actually not just one wall, but many interconnected walls built between the third century B.C. and the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). The existing sections are mainly the Ming wall, which stretches over 8,800 kilometers. [end excerpt]
* "Maintenance on Great Wall Jiayu Pass completed" (2017-12-19, news.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-12/19/c_136837365.htm) [archive.is/B8fEP]: A maintenance project has finished on the Jiayu Pass, a famed part of the Great Wall built in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) in Jiayuguan City, northwest China's Gansu Province.
The Jiayu Pass is regarded as the western start of Ming Dynasty Great Wall and continues to the Shanhai Pass in Hebei Province on China's eastern coast.
Inscribed on the UNESCO list in 1987, the pass features 11.7-meter-high tower walls and meanders across undulating hills and rocks. The site attracted 1.1 million visitors in 2016.
Qiu Jian, a relic protection official, said the work used traditional construction methods and materials, helping to restore the past glory of the military fortress and protect its cultural heritage.
The Great Wall had a poor drainage system, and was cracked and weathered by dry and windy conditions before maintenance began in 2012.
The government-funded work cost over 300 million yuan (45 million U.S. dollars), and renovated a 3.5 square km area of the Great Wall and a 70 square km scenic zone.
The renovation took five years and included gate and beacon towers.

* "Beijing to renovate dilapidated wild Great Wall section" (2018-01-11, news.cgtn.com/news/3051444d78677a6333566d54/share_p.html) [archive.is/LeXW2] [begin excerpt]:
Renovation work at the Jiankou section of the Great Wall, a well-known wild section of the serpentine structure in great danger of collapse, is expected to start in May, according to local authorities in Beijing.
Guo Dapeng, deputy director of Huairou Cultural Commission, said a 1,000-meter section has already been renovated, and noted that the commission plans to finish rehabilitating the remaining part by 2020.
The Jiankou section of the Great Wall stretches for 7.7 kilometers and houses 51 watchtowers. Renovation work will cost 155 million yuan (24 million US dollars).
"We will try our best to keep its original looks, and use as few old bricks as possible," said Guo, adding that they are aiming to set a new standard for renovation work of the Great Wall with their project. [end excerpt]
- Photo caption: The Jiankou section of the Great Wall in clouds in Huairou District, Beijing

* "Great Wall's guardian wins over locals; Farmer's decades of efforts to protect historical relic not always appreciated" (2018-01-26, chinadaily.com.cn),
- pt. 1 chinadaily.com.cn/a/201801/26/WS5a6a671fa3106e7dcc136adb.html) [archive.is/IGkwi]
- pt. 2 (chinadaily.com.cn/a/201801/26/WS5a6a671fa3106e7dcc136adb_2.html) [archive.is/ZyYUR]
[begin excerpt]: Zhang Heshan, 62, from Chengziyu village in Qinhuangdao, has been a ranger for 40 years, patrolling and protecting a 10-kilometer section of the wall constructed during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). The section, which spans seven villages including Chengziyu, has several forms of fortifications typical along the famous sprawling structure, such as watchtowers, miniature castles, passes and platforms to observe and fire at enemies below. "This is a historic treasure that all generations should protect," Zhang said. [...]
William Lindesay, the British founder and director of the International Friends Society of the Great Wall, met Zhang in 2007 when he was traveling along the Chengziyu portion.
Impressed by the section and what Zhang had been doing to preserve the Wall, Lindesay took other members of his group and a sponsor to visit Zhang in 2008.
Together, they launched a Great Wall protection project to fund six wall rangers like Zhang for two years, and helped Zhang publish a book－Whispers from the Wall: Great Wall Folktales told across the Centuries－which contains folk tales about the Chengziyu Great Wall.
In addition to Lindesay's efforts, more travelers from near and far have visited Chengziyu in recent years. "They like the original state of the wall rather than some newly constructed segments in modern times," Zhang said.
He said some sections near Chengziyu have been developed and renovated to become scenic spots.
"I hope the Chengziyu section can become a famous tourist attraction, too, but definitely not with too much development or renovation," he said. [end excerpt]
- Photo caption: A 10-kilometer section of the Great Wall spans Chengziyu and six other villages in Qinhuangdao, Hebei province.


* (from travelchinaguide.com):
- Great Wall History (travelchinaguide.com/china_great_wall/history)
- Great Wall History Maps (travelchinaguide.com/china_great_wall/map/history.htm)
- Great Wall Facts & Photos (travelchinaguide.com/picture/china_great_wall/facts), including photo sets of the remaining Great Walls built during different epochs of China's history.
- Great Wall Chronology (travelchinaguide.com/china_great_wall/history/chronology.htm)


* "The Great Wall of Han Dynasty" (2004-09-09, jorielle-photos.blogspot.de/2004/09/great-wall-of-han-dynasty.html) [archive.is/BStaP], photo caption: The Great Wall, 10 km outside YuMenGuan Pass west Dunhuang (Gansu Province), is the oldest section of the Great Wall standing, built during Han Dyanasty over 2000 years ago. Height: 4 meters.

Another photo in the set at the link (photos1.blogger.com/img/173/2018/1024/162-6237_IMG.jpg) [archive.is/OWkvF], showing a section of this portion of the wall exposed for two-thousand years (?).


* "Stretch of oldest Great Wall identified in central China" (2010-03-09, china.org.cn/china/2010-03/09/content_19566968.htm) [archive.is/2fJww], photo caption: Chinese archeologists have identified the route of a 137-km stretch of China's oldest Great Wall in central Henan Province, on which the remnants of 30 km of wall is still standing.





* "Mongolia – The Gobi Desert & Grasslands" (2012-07-04, wanderingasianguy.com/2012/07/04/mongolia-the-gobi-desert-grasslands/) [archive.is/u02XX], photo caption: One of the oldest parts of the Great Wall of China, dating back 2000 years old. The crumbling walls and watch-towers were constructed with clay and has not stood the test of time, when compared to the newer segments built from stone and bricks found in Beijing. The left side of the wall is China hence the new road, the right side is Mongolia.



* "New section of Great Wall of China discovered by British researcher; Discovered in Mongolia, it's the first time a part of the wall has been found outside China; British researcher William Lindesay used Google Earth to find the structure; The Great Wall of China is in fact many different structures built by several dynasties over different routes" (2012-02-29, dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2108127/New-section-Great-Wall-China-discovered-British-researcher.html) [archive.is/ucoDY], photo caption: High life: Here the Wall is routed up and over an ancient volcanic cone and is composed of black blocks of basalt



* "The Western end ancient great wall of China, Gansu" photo (dreamstime.com/royalty-free-stock-photo-western-end-ancient-great-wall-china-gansu-image27633075) [archive.is/gpMOf], photo caption: The Western end ancient great wall of China, Gansu province. The oldest part of the great wall in Han dynasty made of straw with the rammed earth construction technique. located in Gansu province at the Taklamagan desert the area of Gobi desert and the border of China and Mongolia.



* "China's Great Wall is 'longer than previously thought' " (2012-06-06, bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-18337039) [archive.is/533dG]


The confusion that is wrought by these different walls when confounded by Modern China's efforts at retaining ancient architecture for purposes of prestige and tourism...
* Banner from (yrotsih.com):


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"The Great Wall", a chronological set of depictions and maps: 

* "China on the map: Ancient people's cartography does not lose to today's people, show you the history of making ancient Chinese maps" (daydaynews.cc/en/history/401110.html) [archive.is/tQMWF]

* "The Stone Map of the Han People and Minorities of the Song Dynasty" (1136 AD), first known map from the Yellow river basin to show a Great Wall.



* "Gujin Huayi quyu zongyao tu (General Map of Chinese and Barbarian Territories)" (1130). Found in the collection ofYantian Library, Shenzhen" (alamy.com/gujin-huayi-quyu-zongyao-tu-general-map-of-chinese-and-barbarian-non-chinese-territories-1130-found-in-the-collection-ofyantian-library-shenzhen-image374807006.html) [archive.is/IbTx7]

* "Hua yi tu" (loc.gov/resource/g7820.ct000284/) [archive.is/LKhpb] [begin excerpt]: 

Original stone was engraved in Fuchang 7 nian, i.e. 1136 A.D. The stone is now in the Forest of Stone Steles Museum in Xi'an, China.

Covers China in Nan Song Dynasty, from east to the sea, including Korea to the west of Pamier area, from north to the Great Wall, northeast to Heilongjiang region, to the south of Hainan Island. [end excerpt]

* "Huayi tu" (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huayi_tu) [archive.is/cZYyG] [begin excerpt]:

on the reverse side of Huayi tu is the gridded Yu Ji Tu (Map of the Tracks of Yu the Great) carved in 1142. This map is the earliest surviving example of lattice cartographic grid found in Chinese map. [end excerpt]

- image caption: Rubbing of Yuji Tu

* "Sihai Huayi Zongtu" (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sihai_Huayi_Zongtu) [archive.is/CYAuE]:

The Sihai Huayi Zongtu ("Complete Map of the Four Seas, China, and the Barbarians") is a Chinese world map dated to 1532, the 11th year of the Ming Dynasty's Jiajing Emperor. It is now located in the Harvard Library.

The map is oriented towards the north and displays various locations in China, as well as Korea, Siberia (as Luohuangye), Nepal and a vast India, Persia, on the central continent. Japan lies beyond the East China Sea, along with such imaginary locations as the "Land of the Pygmies". The Roman Empire appears (as Daqinguo) beyond the "Western Sea".

* "Atlas of the Chinese Empire (Huangyu quan lan tu)" 

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Roman Knowledge of the "Great Wall", 1500s to 1800s 

* "Western Appreciation of the Great Wall" (retrieved 2015-10-23, from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Great_Wall_of_China) [archive.is/03vEP#selection-5203.0-5203.32].


* Map showing Japan, China, and Tibet (1522, by M. Waldseemüller, for the edition of "Ptolemy’s Geography" printed by L. Fries at Strasbourg).

- More info (retrieved 2015-10-23 from cartographic-images.net/Cartographic_Images/368.1_China_Japan__Tibet.html) [archive.is/JP4EB] [begin excerpt]: Often called “The First Printed Map of the Far East”, however, obviously the Chinese had printed maps of this area since at least the 12th century. A very attractive, dark-impressioned example of the first printed Western map to focus on China and Japan. Albeit in rudimentary form, the map shows all of China, Tartary, Japan and much of Southeast Asia, including Cambodia (Bocat) and Tibet. The latter is both shown and named in the very center of the map. Some provincial divisions are indicated for China, and Japan appears as a single, large, north-south-oriented island. [end excerpt]

* "Chinae olim Sinarum regionis, nova descriptio" (1584, by Abraham Ortelius, and Ludovico Georgio whose birth name is Luiz Jorge de Barbuda), is first map in the Roman realms to have a Great Wall. The author's sources were from among the Jesuit missions to China. 

* (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luiz_Jorge_de_Barbuda) [archive.is/nkJhk]

* (cartographic-images.net/Cartographic_Images/410H_Chinae.html) [archive.is/bTdCN] [begin excerpt]: One of the first printed European map of China (see also #368.1). It is signed by Ludovico Georgio, whose real name was Luis Jorge de Barbuda. He was a Portuguese cartographer with Spanish employers. He also produced an early history of China from which of the information for this map must have been drawn. When this map appeared, it was by far the most accurate one of China. Japan is shown on a curious curved projection reminiscent of Portuguese charts of the period with Honshu dissected along the line of Lake Biwa.
The outline shows the region horizontally orientated with North to the right of the page and includes parts of Indo-China, the Philippines and most of Japan. The Great Wall of China is shown here for the first time on a European map. The Tartar yurts, or travelling tents, are dotted across the plains and steppes of Central and Eastern Asia.  Notable is the illustration in eastern China of the wheeled “sail machines”. These four wind wagons are shown on the right and top of the map, perhaps the earliest examples of a depiction of this device, which in Europe is certain to have originated in the Low Countries, but which had been invented much earlier in China. The wind wagon is well documented in a treatise in Dutch on the subject by Simon Stevin that appeared in Dutch in the year 1600.
As one of the earliest printed map specifically of China and the first to show the Great Wall, this map remained the standard type for the interior of China for over sixty years. With its three lushly designed cartouches and many illustrations of indigenous shelters, modes of transportation and animals, this is one of Ortelius’s richest engravings. A reflection of just how early this map is in the West’s knowledge of China is suggested by the fact that Portuguese Jesuits were not allowed to establish a mission on Chinese soil until 1577, just seven years before this map was published. Although the map’s Portuguese maker, Barbuda, was himself not a Jesuit, his sources for the map were Portuguese Jesuits. The Chinese characters found in the text on the verso of the map were the first introduction to Chinese language for many educated Europeans of the time. The map and text would have forced many Europeans to see China for the first time as a nation and culture distinct from the others of Asia.  [end excerpt]


* "Tartarie" (1659, by Nicolas Tassin, geographer of the King), including a section of the Great Wall of China

* (mapandmaps.com/en/russian-antique-old-maps-and-prints/4376-tartarie-antique-map-russia-siberia-crimea-chinese-wall-by-nicolas-tassin-1659.html) [archive.fo/FYxlL]

- full map  (mapandmaps.com/23010-thickbox_default/tartarie-antique-map-russia-siberia-crimea-chinese-wall-by-nicolas-tassin-1659.jpg) [archive.is/Y3Tr8]

* (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Illustrata) [archive.is/ZAZKj], introduction: China Illustrata is the 1667 published book written by the Jesuit Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680) that compiles the 17th century European knowledge on the Chinese Empire and its neighboring countries. The original Latin title was: ”Athanasii Kircheri e Soc. Jesu China monumentis, qua sacris qua profanis, nec non variis Naturae et artis spectaculis, aliarumque rerum memorabilium argumentis illustrata, auspiciis Leopoldi primi, Roman. Imper. Semper augusti Munificentissimi Mecaenatis“.
* extract from the title piece (1667, via upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/China_Monumentis,_qua_sacris_qua_profanis_by_Athanasius_Kircher.jpg) [archive.is/M5Fue]

* "China Monumentis, qua sacris qua profanis" (1667, by Athanasius Kircher; English version, translated by Charles D. Van Tuyl; via https://htext.stanford.edu/content/kircher/china/kircher.pdf) [http://web.archive.org/web/20201109035522/https://htext.stanford.edu/content/kircher/china/kircher.pdf]

* "China, with Korea and Parts of Tartarstan: the Closest Parts, from the Maps Drawn by Jesuit Missionaries in the Years 1708 to 1717" (1737; via wdl.org/en/item/11814/) [http://web.archive.org/web/20150905143838/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11814/], full map (dl.wdl.org/11814/service/11814.pdf) [http://web.archive.org/web/20150907034050if_/http://dl.wdl.org/11814/service/11814.pdf]

* "1872 Mitchell Map of India, China and Tibet" (geographicus.com/P/AntiqueMap/IndiaChinaTibet-mitchell-1872) [archive.is/QzY9V]:

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The Fortified Walls of Coryo (Korea)

* "Walled City of Pyongyang" (2015-12-07, naenara.com.kp/en/news/news_view.php?0+95370) [archive.is/8XU3k]: It is the walled city of the capital of Koguro, mostly covering the present-day Central and Phyongchon districts of Pyongyang.
It had favorable geographical conditions as it had Moran Hill in the north and was surrounded by the Taedong and Pothong rivers, the natural moats, in the east, west and south. The outer walls were approximately 16 kilometres in circumference.


* "Chongam-dong Earthen Wall" (2015-12-09, naenara.com.kp/en/news/news_view.php?0+95375) [archive.is/zvqFK]: The Chongam-dong earthen wall is located on the shore of the Taedong River in Chongam-dong, Taesong District.
It was first built in the period of Tangun’s Joson and reconstructed by Koguryo three times.
It is crescent-shaped and about 3 450 metres round.
Historians recognize that it was built in the central area of Pyongyang in the period of Tangun’s Joson and used for the whole period of the Ancient Joson and that it is the Wanggom Fort, the capital of Tangun’s Joson.